Near the end of her life, Jane Austen wrote a letter to her niece Caroline, saying in the postscript, “The Piano Forte often talks of you; . . . be it Lesson or Country dance, Sonata or Waltz, You are really its’ constant Theme” (23 January 1817). This animation of the piano as a means of communication also embodies the ongoing interaction between Jane Austen, modern admirers of her work, and the keyboard. A conversation continues—between Austen’s characters and the keyboard, between newly composed music and repertoire contemporaneous to Austen, and between new generations of keyboard students and their teachers. Just as she writes of the piano talking to her, Jane Austen, with a little help from new generations of artists and storytellers, continues to resound in full vibrancy through the instrument she held most dear.
With her ability as a keyboardist well-documented, Jane Austen’s connection to music permeates her personal life and her novels. Letters to and from Austen detail her practicing, her collecting and copying new music for the family collection, and her singular opinions on music played during public performances (27–28 December 1808; 25 April 1811). From the recent discovery of the Austen family music books in 2015 (“Jane Austen’s Family Music Books”), musicians now have more understanding of what she played at the keyboard and when, as well as a better comprehension of the role of the keyboard in the Austen household. In her writing, several plot points and main characters are directly understood through connection to the keyboard and music.
The symbiotic relationship between Austen’s work and music has branched out as time has passed to encompass new formats, specifically film and film scores. A wealth of movie and TV adaptations of Austen’s fiction have embraced music as a diegetic narrative component and an integral element of non-diegetic storytelling. As David Neumeyer explains, diegetic and non-diegetic music can be understood as “spatial and temporal relations between image and sound.” Diegetic music equals “the anchoring of sound in the physical world depicted in the film”; non-diegetic music is “the appropriate, or apparently natural coordination of sound with a moving image” (26). As can be seen in Austen adaptations, music frequently exists as something the characters hear and engage with (diegetic), but it also exists independently of the characters’ world (non-diegetic). In some cases, the line is blurred, melding what the audience hears and what characters react to on screen. The use of diegetic and non-diegetic music in Austen films offers a further connection between her work and music, as adaptations often employ music as a storytelling tool, using the tension between music heard in the action and beyond the action as a significant storytelling device.
Throughout the Austen film catalogue, the prominence of keyboard music has created repertoire that offers new generations pedagogical, compositional, and musical understanding in symbiosis with Austen’s contribution to literature. As each new adaptation of her novels adds to the musical content related to Austen, pedagogical possibilities also expand. Students of the keyboard can find motivation in the historical aspects of Austen’s music, inspiring them to embrace Classical styles in their practice. They can also find emotional connection to pieces beyond what standard lesson books may offer. As a teacher, Jane Austen has also proved to be a fruitful entry point into many aspects of piano pedagogy.
By examining the diegetic and non-diegetic keyboard content of Joe Wright’s 2005 film Pride & Prejudice, Ang Lee’s 1995 Sense and Sensibility, and Autumn de Wilde’s 2020 Emma., we can appreciate three unique adaptations that seek to honor Austen’s legacy through music with distinct intention. While each film takes its own approach to scoring Austen, they all heighten our understanding of the characters, their actions, and their relevance to readers today. Considering the keyboard, specifically, all three films acknowledge Austen’s instrument of choice by creating meaningful connections to that instrument in their musical decisions.
Pride, prejudice, and piano
© 2005 Universal Studios.
Almost before an image hits the screen of Joe Wright’s 2005 Pride & Prejudice, the opening notes of Dario Marianelli’s score usher us into the world of Elizabeth Bennet. Marianelli’s compositions avoid overtly sampling Classical composers—although Marianelli speaks of using the “Beethoven early piano sonatas” as points of inspiration (Goldwasser)—or falling into overtly kitschy harpsichord music as a way of giving credence to the film’s historical setting. Simplicity comes to mind when describing Marianelli’s writing for Pride & Prejudice, with the keyboard taking precedence.
For example, the opening melody and patterns of “Dawn” return in a later iteration at the film’s close (Marianelli, Pride & Prejudice), allowing music to support storytelling and the passage of time in the film without overpowering the action on screen.
M.19–22 of “Dawn” by Dario Marianelli, with markings to highlight thematic material. Dario Marianelli, Pride & Prejudice (2006).
M.1–3 of “Mrs. Darcy” by Dario Marianelli, with markings to highlight thematic material. Dario Marianelli, Pride & Prejudice (2006).
Diegetically, the film also includes that same thematic material when Elizabeth Bennet plays the piano at Rosings, while Mr. Darcy observes. Later, we hear Georgiana Darcy play the same theme with more technical ability—a deft example of using diegetic music to enforce the characterizations of Georgiana and Elizabeth.
© 2005 Universal Studios.
© 2005 Universal Studios.
Marianelli’s score frequently allows Wright to use music to support storytelling. “Georgiana,” another original keyboard composition that is played diegetically in the film, offers a yet more direct musical correlation to the character performing at the piano with such facility. Of all the pieces, “Georgiana” is the most Classical in nature, with indicative ornamentation and left-hand accompaniment, demonstrating Marianelli’s understanding of when to reference historical music directly to support the action.
At other points in the score, in contrast, Marianelli takes the tenets of the Classical era and molds them with a more modern sound to blur the distinction between historical faithfulness and contemporary composition. In the textures and chordal patterns that exist throughout the score, Marianelli finds opportunities to embrace the modern influence of Minimalism. Defined as a musical style “characterized by a constant pulse and many repetitions of simple RHYTHMIC, MELODIC, or HARMONIC patterns” (Grout A11), Minimalism is a compositional style heralded by Philip Glass, John Adams, and Steve Reich. It is also frequently associated with film—for example, in Glass’s score for the 2002 film The Hours.
Pieces from Pride & Prejudice that include solo piano prominently (“Liz on Top of the World,” “Dawn,” “The Secret Life of Daydreams”) all feature distinct textural, harmonic, and rhythmic elements that relate heavily to Minimalism. What results is a musical connection between Classical inspiration and modern compositional style. In terms of storytelling, there is great power in combining past and present through music. A synthesis of historical and modern musical styles offers contemporary ears an entry point and an immediate sense of understanding that aids storytelling and character development.
In her examination of the Austen adaptation Clueless (1995), Laura Carroll highlights the value of attaching the modern to historical Austen storylines. Referring to this 1990s re-working of Emma, Carroll writes that “the social dynamics in each novel have distinct parallels and continuities with the cultural landscapes of newer but no less imaginary times and place.” She argues that “we might at last cease searching for reasons why this particular novelist works in ‘our’ time, and turn instead to finding ways to make . . . productions resonate with the long and healthy tradition of reading Jane Austen, assimilating her novels, and reinventing them” (174). While not scoring the Bennets with the rapper Coolio, in his soundtrack Marianelli does connect modernity to his compositional work for Pride and Prejudice.
Pedagogically, pieces like “Dawn” have the additional benefit of giving students an early accessible experience of Minimalism. Years before they might encounter Philip Glass’s piano etudes, through Marianelli’s compositions they can gain experience with mixed meter, repetitive technical issues, and sensitive implied pedaling. The score exists as vernacular music with significant value to Austen fans, but it also exists as sophisticated piano repertoire, tackling important technical and stylistic challenges that keyboard students will find immediate value in studying.
Adopting Classical style for new works with diegetic purpose
Speaking about his working relationship with Ang Lee, the director of the 1995 Sense and Sensibility film, Patrick Doyle, the film’s composer, said that Ang Lee’s “attention to minutiae is great. . . . I did lots of research to refresh my mind [on eighteenth-century music] . . . to show to Ang the sources and we’d discuss in detail the research I’d done” (Gormley). What results is a modern score with deep stylistic roots in the Classical period, composed of pieces that feature the types of musical forms detailed in the novel and in Austen’s own personal life. The film also takes the opportunity to use many of the pieces diegetically, allowing for a realistic retelling of music making on screen.
In contrast to Wright and Marianelli’s collaboration on Pride & Prejudice, which uses the Classical period as a more abstract musical catalyst, Lee and Doyle approach the relationship between Austen and music with historically informed composition at the forefront. The score seeks to create a seamless sound world that merges into the action on the screen. To some extent, there is no stylistic difference between diegetic and non-diegetic music. If any of the music Doyle wrote were to be played in the action of the scene, it is reasonable to suppose that it might perfectly suit a country dance or a musical performance at a London ball.
The keyboard is again integral to both the novel and the 1995 film, with Marianne Dashwood as its champion. The passionate Marianne is strongly linked with music playing and performance throughout, and her performances often help define her character and the dispositions of those around her. Doyle’s score uses Marianne Dashwood, played by Kate Winslet, as a conduit to music, further supporting Austen’s alignment of Marianne with the sensibility and passion that her sister Elinor lacks (outwardly, at least). In the film, Winslet as Marianne plays Doyle’s “My Father’s Favorite,” “Weep You No More Sad Fountains,” and “The Dreame,” providing a true depiction of her character and how she moves in the world.
© 1995 Sony Pictures.
From a technical view, Patrick Doyle’s piano writing allows for a very idiomatic playing experience at the keyboard. “My Father’s Favorite” is nearly identical to the experience of playing a slow middle movement of a Classical piano sonata, from the cantabile and slow tempo to the ornamental right-hand patterns and emphasis on melodic line. “The Dreame,” likewise, is a very accessible art song in the early Romantic musical style that could also be played as a piano solo. The pedagogical benefits for keyboard students are apparent, as the Sense and Sensibility score offers several pieces of well-crafted music that connect to standard forms in the Western Classical tradition.
Considering Sense and Sensibility’s pieces for piano as a keyboard teacher, I also notice an emphasis on an area of study that has been recently overlooked. Supported by what we can see from Jane Austen’s own music copying, the act of making music at the keyboard was not limited to playing alone. While it was common for one person to play and another to sing, it was also common for one performer to play and sing in the Regency era. Doyle, with Kate Winslet as performer, offers us a faithful example in the 1995 film.
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© 1995 Sony Pictures. (MP4)
© 1995 Sony Pictures.
Held at Chawton House, the Austen family music books entitled “Juvinile Songs & Lessons” and “Songs and duetts” include music for solo keyboard, music for voice and keyboard, exercises, and one slightly cheeky notation in the “Juvinile Songs” book that the music was intended “for young beginners who don’t know enough to practise” (Jane Austen’s House “Music Book”). As was common during the Regency era, Jane and her family collected and copied out songs, arrangements, and new music for later practice and enjoyment. Like our modern Spotify playlists, the Austen family’s copied music books reflect their desire to record music they liked, that they wanted to share with visitors, and that they might play for their own personal enjoyment. Echoing what we see and hear in Sense and Sensibility, many of the pieces in the music books include evidence that songs were meant to be played and sung by one performer at the keyboard.
The world of performance and piano pedagogy since Jane’s time has become specialized to the point where piano professors can, and often do, choose to specialize in teaching one style and specific way of performing at the keyboard. Playing while singing was common in the Regency era and is now almost never incorporated into standard pedagogy. Considering Doyle’s score and Austen’s understanding of music making, encouraging the piano student to incorporate singing melodies while playing can open many avenues for development. Having the goal of both singing and playing at the keyboard can give students new opportunities and further confidence in their skills. Playing while singing at the keyboard also allows for a fuller understanding of music pedagogy and is a worthy trait to incorporate into keyboard education.
Unconventional roads to traditional destinations
The most recent of the three films studied, 2020’s Emma., directed by Autumn de Wilde and scored by Isobel Waller-Bridge and David Schweizer, approaches its soundtrack differently from either the 1995 Sense and Sensibility or the 2005 Pride & Prejudice. Autumn de Wilde, whose background of work includes photography and music videos, sought references as diverse as folk music and Peter and the Wolf, with a direction to Isobel Waller-Bridge to make the score sound like “a misbehaving orchestra” (Schwedel). While de Wilde said she wanted “to go into music history” (Schwedel) with Emma.’s music, the film’s music is wide-ranging and eclectic.
Natalie Vandenburg writes of the Emma. soundtrack that “diverse styles and genres interact with each other to form the overarching style and meaning.” In addition to accurately framing the musical content of the film, Vandenburg helps underline how the seemingly disparate references unite for a cohesive Austen experience. There is historically informed writing in the newly composed music, emphasis on historical instrumentation, and prominent use of vocal music to mirror the action in the film. It is a credit to the clear vision of de Wilde and her collaboration with Waller-Bridge and Schweizer, as well as music supervisor Becky Bentham, that the soundtrack is distinctive and that “the dialogue between the parts—between the musical genres and between audio and visual representations—. . . gives the film its full meaning” (Vandenburg).
With this understanding of the film’s musical content, it might be unexpected that Emma. includes the most traditional use of keyboard music out of the three examples considered here. In the original music composed for Emma., the keyboard is not central and serves to add texture more than focal points. The film’s music does include a recording of Beethoven’s Op. 58 Piano Concerto No. 4 in G Major, performed by Glenn Gould (Schwedel), that is used non-diegetically, but it does not include a diegetic performance of the piece. Through the character of Jane Fairfax, however, we get an excellent diegetic performance of a Classical piano sonata—a musical form that is a cornerstone of piano repertoire across history.
In the film, Emma Woodhouse plays the keyboard and is seen practicing, but she is not particularly remarkable in her ability, as is also the case in the novel. The action of the film sees Emma play and sing a piece at the keyboard, much as we see in Sense and Sensibility, at an evening gathering. The performance depicts Emma fulfilling a duty more than reflecting an inner love of music and its emotive qualities.
Her performance drastically contrasts with that of Miss Fairfax, who plays directly after her in the film. Miss Fairfax plays a virtuosic piece from memory, highlighting both characterization through music and an attention to humor that Austen would have appreciated. To achieve this moment of keyboard-centric storytelling, Waller-Bridge, Schweizer, and de Wilde give Jane Fairfax W. A. Mozart’s Piano Sonata K. 332 to play. This choice is true to the film’s eclectic musical style, but it is also extremely relevant to the world of keyboard, as it is a piece that is still frequently taught and performed today.
Amber Anderson, the actor who plays Jane Fairfax, “was planning to be a pianist” but moved in a different direction (James). Her knowledge at the keyboard allowed her to perform the Mozart sonata live, and it highlights an interesting advantage of piano study. While it is common for teachers to bemoan students who turn away from choosing keyboard as their main course of study, Anderson illustrates an unexpected benefit. Knowledge at the piano does not disappear, even if students do not pursue music professionally. Educated pianists, like Anderson, can continue to contribute to the field through unique opportunities when skilled pianists are required. They can act as ambassadors for our trade, even if they are not defined as professional musicians.
We often find ourselves, as teachers and students, becoming hyper-focused on the end goal of reaching a music conservatory, of performing and competing successfully at virtuosic levels. Music, however, has many opportunities that lie between the concert stage and giving up the instrument entirely that are often under-valued. The Mozart sonata that Anderson plays is a complex work requiring hours of diligent practice, as well as an understanding of style, technique, and musical interpretation sensitive to the period. Her example shows a new perception of successful piano pedagogy and enacts a truly faithful approach to film music that honors Austen’s intentions in Emma.
© 1995 Sony Pictures.
Anderson’s example demonstrates a new possibility for future Austen adaptations. Knowledge of the piano and ability to perform create the opportunity to re-enact Austen to its full potential. Synthesizing piano performance with film performance of Jane Austen’s works creates new ways to unite music and storytelling. Students of the keyboard have the potential to enact Austen, uniting musical and dramatic performance and uniting the keyboard with the world of Jane Austen in a more complex way.
Austen as inspiration for the keyboard world
After researching the effect that music in movies, series, and TV documentaries has on children, Amparo Porta concludes that “study has shown how the music in audiovisuals provides children with the spatial, temporal, emotional, and contextual elements that are decisive in constructing their fictional world, a world that undoubtedly would not be the same if the music were different” (328). I have felt that impact. My first experience with the 2005 Pride & Prejudice has a continued effect that I still observe in my own composition and pedagogy, and, potentially, in the fact that I continued with the keyboard through to a doctorate. That first experience of the keyboard and Jane Austen’s work in my early development as a pianist connected me to my instrument. In Jane Austen, I found a beloved artist who valued the instrument that I played. Through film adaptations, I found thoughtful and complex keyboard music that gave sound to a fictional world I was hugely invested in and inspired by at a crucial age.
I have noticed similar experiences in my students when they make the connection between the Austen novel and film music that they love. It feels like a gift when I can offer them the option of playing a piece from an Austen film. Due to her continued influence on the field of keyboard, Austen music has great merits in pedagogy, composition, and immense interdisciplinary emotional value. The recitals that have seen my students program a piece of Austen-inspired music are among the most meaningful, in terms of their learning and their emotional fulfillment at the instrument.
Pride & Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, and Emma. demonstrate three unique approaches, then, to the keyboard and Austen. Dario Marianelli uses the historical setting of the action as a foundational reference but also embraces modern compositional techniques to create new works. Patrick Doyle takes the path of faithful composition in the Classical style, adopting traditional performative styles, such as singing and playing, to create a fluidity between diegetic and non-diegetic sound. In the most collaborative musical approach of the three films, Emma. takes the opportunity to emphasize the sustained value of the Classical keyboard canon and the ability of its performers. Each film’s music contributes notably to the world of the piano, with its representative music offering varied and nuanced repertoire for future study and performance, all because of Jane Austen’s emphasis on the keyboard as an integral aspect of storytelling.
NOTE
The clips used in this essay satisfy the criteria for fair use established in Section 107 of the Copyright Law of the United States of America and Related Laws Contained in Title 17 of the United States Code.
